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1 royal grant
Юридический термин: королевское пожалование -
2 royal grant
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3 royal grant
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4 grant
1) отчуждение, передача права собственности | отчуждать, передавать право собственности2) пожалование | пожаловать3) дарение; дарственный акт, дарственная | дарить4) дотация, субсидия5) разрешение | разрешать; предоставлять•grant from the Crown — королевское пожалование;
grant from the government — 1. правительственное пожалование 2. правительственная, государственная дотация, субсидия 3. правительственное разрешение;
to grant a bail — удовлетворить ходатайство о передаче на поруки;
to grant a motion — удовлетворить ходатайство;
to grant an application — удовлетворить ходатайство;
to grant a permission — давать разрешение;
to grant a petition — удовлетворить ходатайство;
to grant a relief — 1. предоставлять помощь, пособие 2. предоставлять судебную защиту 3. освобождать (от уплаты, ответственности) 4. делать скидку ( с налога);
to grant a request — удовлетворить ходатайство;
to grant a taler — пополнить жюри запасными присяжными заседателями;
to grant funds — фондировать;
to grant pardon — помиловать;
to grant rehearing — санкционировать повторное слушание дела;
- grant of pardonto grant relief of waiver — освобождать от отказа от права, возвращать право
- grant of parole
- grant of patent
- grant of permission
- grant of probate
- grant of probation
- grant of time off
- grant of title of honour
- action grant
- affirmative grant
- block grant
- block action grant
- capitation grant
- categorical grant
- confinement grant
- discretionary grant
- express grant
- government grant
- implied grant
- prison grants
- royal grant -
5 royal
1) розм. член королівської родини2) королівський, царський- royalist•- Royal assent
- royal assent
- royal charter
- royal clemency
- royal court
- royal governor
- royal grant
- royal great seal
- royal pardon
- royal power
- royal prerogative
- royal privacy
- royal remission
- royal succession
- royal treasury
- royal veto
- royal warrant -
6 royal prerogative to grant or refuse the Royal Assent
пол., юр., брит. королевская прерогатива дать королевскую санкцию или отказать в ней* (может быть осуществлена только в пользу законопроектов, утвержденных палатой общин и палатой лордов)Syn:See:Англо-русский экономический словарь > royal prerogative to grant or refuse the Royal Assent
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7 royal prerogative
пол., юр., брит. королевская прерогатива ( исключительное право королевской власти)royal prerogative to appoint the members of the government — королевская прерогатива назначать членов правительства
royal prerogative to appoint the Prime Minister — королевская прерогатива назначать премьер-министра
royal prerogative to grant or refuse the Royal Assent — королевская прерогатива дать королевскую санкцию или отказать в ней
Syn:See:Case of Proclamations, Attorney-General v De Keyser's Royal Hotel, order in council, royal proclamation, Coke's King's Bench Reports, Office of the Civil Service Commissioners, constitutional convention, royal prerogative, royal prerogative to appoint the Prime Minister, royal prerogative to appoint the members of the government, royal assent, royal prerogative to summon Parliament, royal prerogative to dissolve Parliament, Crown Proceedings Act 1947, monarch, prime minister, constitutional convention, Act of Settlement 1700 -
8 charter
1. noun(a formal document giving rights or privileges.) escritura de constitución, estatutos
2. verb(to let or hire (a ship, aircraft etc) on contract: The travel company had chartered three aircraft for their holiday flights.) fletar, alquilar
3. adjectivea charter plane; a charter flight.) vuelo chárter
chárter adjetivo invariable charter ( before n) ■ sustantivo masculino charter (flight)
chárter adjetivo inv charter ' chárter' also found in these entries: Spanish: fletar - vuelo - flete English: charter - charter flighttr['ʧɑːtəSMALLr/SMALL]1 (of town) fuero; (of company) escritura de constitución, estatutos nombre masculino plural; (of university) estatutos nombre masculino plural2 (constitution) carta3 (hiring of plane etc) fletamiento1 (grant rights, privileges to) aprobar los estatutos de2 (hire plane, boat, etc) fletar, alquilar\SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALLcharter flight vuelo chártercharter ['ʧɑrt̬ər] vt1) : establecer los estatutos de (una organización)2) rent: alquilar, fletarcharter n1) statutes: estatutos mpl2) constitution: carta f, constitución fn.• carta s.f.• contrato de fletamento de un barco s.m.• estatutos s.m.pl.• fletamento s.m.v.• alquilar v.• estatuir v.• fletar v.• fletear v.
I 'tʃɑːrtər, 'tʃɑːtə(r)1) ca) ( of university) estatutos mpl; ( of city) fuero m; ( of company) escritura f de constituciónb) ( constitution) carta fc) ( guarantee of rights) fuero m, privilegio m2) u ( hire) ( Transp) (contrato m de) fletamento m; (before n) <flight, plane> chárter adj inv
II
1)a) ( grant charter to) aprobar* los estatutos deb) (BrE) chartered past p <engineer/surveyor> colegiadochartered accountant — contador público, contadora pública m,f (AmL), censor jurado, censora jurada m,f de cuentas (Esp)
2) ( hire) \<\<plane/ship/bus\>\> fletar, alquilar['tʃɑːtǝ(r)]1. N1) (=authorization) carta f ; [of city] fuero m ; [of organization] estatutos mpl ; [of company] escritura f de constituciónroyal charter — cédula f real
2) (=hire) (Naut) alquiler m ; (Aer) fletamento m2. VT1) [+ organization] aprobar los estatutos de; [+ company] aprobar la escritura de constitución de2) [+ bus] alquilar; [+ ship, plane] fletar3.CPDcharter flight N — vuelo m chárter
charter plane N — avión m chárter
* * *
I ['tʃɑːrtər, 'tʃɑːtə(r)]1) ca) ( of university) estatutos mpl; ( of city) fuero m; ( of company) escritura f de constituciónb) ( constitution) carta fc) ( guarantee of rights) fuero m, privilegio m2) u ( hire) ( Transp) (contrato m de) fletamento m; (before n) <flight, plane> chárter adj inv
II
1)a) ( grant charter to) aprobar* los estatutos deb) (BrE) chartered past p <engineer/surveyor> colegiadochartered accountant — contador público, contadora pública m,f (AmL), censor jurado, censora jurada m,f de cuentas (Esp)
2) ( hire) \<\<plane/ship/bus\>\> fletar, alquilar -
9 charter
ˈtʃɑ:tə
1. сущ.
1) хартия, грамота The Great Charter The People's Charter United Nations Charter
2) право, привилегия, льгота;
документ, разрешающий создание университета, компании и других корпораций to apply for a charter ≈ предъявлять права на что-л. to take out a charter ≈ получать право на что-л. to grant a charter ≈ предоставить право to revoke a charter ≈ лишать права/привилегии, отбирать права, отбирать привилегии The company was granted a charter to trade in the occupied territory. ≈ Компании было предоставлено право торговать на оккупированной территории. Syn: privilege
1., immunity
3) устав
4) = charter-party
5) сдача напрокат( автомобиля и т. п.)
6) самолет, судно и т. п., совершающие чартерный рейс;
чартерный рейс;
чартерный отдых I was driving a charter to New Orleans. ≈ У меня был чартерный рейс в Новый Орлеан.
2. гл.
1) даровать привилегии;
предоставлять льготы;
давать разрешение на создание корпорации Syn: privilege
2., license
1.
2) фрахтовать( судно или самолет)
3) разг. брать напрокат, заказывать (автомобиль и т. п.) Syn: lease хартия, грамота;
- The Great C. (историческое) Великая хартия вольностей;
- The People's C. (историческое) программа чартистов (1838 г) ;
- * of pardon указ о помиловании;
- Constitutional C. конституция, основной закон;
- * hand почерк, которым написаны английские документы эпохи средневековья преимущественное право;
привилегия, льгота патент документ, содержащий согласие государственного органа на создание корпорации устав;
- C. of the United Nations Устав Организации Обхединенных Наций (морское) чартер, чартер-партия;
- time * тайм-чартер (договор о фрахтовании на срок) ;
сдача напрокат, прокат групповой туризм на зафрахтованном транспорте;
- this travel firm specialized in * это бюро путешествий специализируется на групповом туризме чартерный (о перевозках) ;
- * freight( морское) фрахт по чартеру давать или даровать привилегию, льготу выдавать разрешение на учреждение корпорации;
- the government *ed the new airline правительство разрешило создание новой авиалинии сдавать внаем по чартеру;
- the vessel was *ed to Mr. N. судно было сдано по чартеру г-ну Н фрахтовать;
- the vessel was *ed by Mr. N. судно было зафрахтовано г-ном Н давать напрокат, внаем, предоставлять в пользование по заказу брать напрокат;
нанимать, заказывать учреждать, создавать bareboat ~ чартер на судно, зафрахтованное без экипажа charter = charterparty;
time charter таймчартер, договор на фрахтование судна на определенный рейс ~ выдавать разрешение на учреждение корпорации ~ грамота, хартия, привилегия (пожалованная верховной властью) ~ грамота ~ давать льготу ~ даровать (привилегию) ~ даровать привилегию ~ договор фрахтования судна ~ документ, содержащий согласие государственного органа на создание корпорации ~ разг. заказывать, нанимать ~ льгота ~ право, привилегия ~ предоставлять в пользование по заказу ~ преимущественное право ~ привилегия ~ прокат ~ сдавать внаем ~ сдавать внаем судно по чартеру ~ сдача напрокат (автомобиля и т. п.) ~ сдача напрокат ~ устав ~ фрахтовать, сдавать внаем (судно) по чартеру ~ фрахтовать (судно) ~ фрахтовать ~ хартия, грамота;
the Great Charter ист. Великая хартия вольностей (1215 г.) ;
the People's Charter программа чартистов (1838 г.) ;
United Nations Charter Устав ООН ~ хартия ~ чартер, чартер-партия, договор фрахтования судна ~ чартер ~ чартер-партия Charter: Charter: Social ~ Социальная хартия (принята главами правительств государств-членов ЕЭС в Страсбурге в декабре 1989 г.) charter: charter: time ~ тайм-чартер ~ attr.: ~ member амер. один из основателей (какой-л.) организации ~ attr.: ~ member амер. один из основателей (какой-л.) организации member: charter ~ учредитель charter ~ (амер.) член-основатель (организации, корпорации) charter ~ член-основатель ~ of a ship фрахт судна ~ out сдавать внаем по чартеру charter = charterparty;
time charter таймчартер, договор на фрахтование судна на определенный рейс charterparty: charterparty мор., ком. фрахтовый контракт, чартерпартия corporate ~ устав корпорации corporation ~ устав корпорации demise ~ димайз-чартер (договор фрахтования судна без экипажа) full cargo ~ чартер-партия на весь груз ~ хартия, грамота;
the Great Charter ист. Великая хартия вольностей (1215 г.) ;
the People's Charter программа чартистов (1838 г.) ;
United Nations Charter Устав ООН lump sum ~ суд. люмпсум-чартер lump sum ~ суд. фрахтование на базе люмпсум lump sum ~ суд. чартер с твердой общей суммой фрахта marine ~ договор о фрахтовании судна marine ~ чартер marine ~ чартер-партия monthly ~ договор страхования судна с помесячной оплатой municipal ~ муниципальный устав open ~ суд. открытый чартер partial ~ суд. неполный чартер ~ хартия, грамота;
the Great Charter ист. Великая хартия вольностей (1215 г.) ;
the People's Charter программа чартистов (1838 г.) ;
United Nations Charter Устав ООН round trip ~ круговой чартер round trip ~ фрахтование судна на прямой и обратный рейсы royal ~ королевская грамота royal ~ королевская привилегия royal ~ королевский патент social ~ общественный контракт Charter: Charter: Social ~ Социальная хартия (принята главами правительств государств-членов ЕЭС в Страсбурге в декабре 1989 г.) charter = charterparty;
time charter таймчартер, договор на фрахтование судна на определенный рейс charter: charter: time ~ тайм-чартер time ~ чартер на срок trip ~ суд. рейсовый чартер ~ хартия, грамота;
the Great Charter ист. Великая хартия вольностей (1215 г.) ;
the People's Charter программа чартистов (1838 г.) ;
United Nations Charter Устав ООН voyage ~ рейсовый чартер -
10 Boxer, Major-General Edward Mourrier
SUBJECT AREA: Weapons and armour[br]b. February 1822d. 11 January 1897 Isle of Wight, England[br]English Ammunition designer and inventor of the brass, fully obturating cartridge case.[br]Commissioned into the Royal Artillery in 1839, Boxer's flair for the technical aspects of gunnery led to his appointment, at the early age of 33, as Superintendent of the Laboratory at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. He was able to devote his attention to the design of more effective shells, cartridges and fuses, with his greatest achievement being the invention, in 1866, of the Boxer cartridge, which had a case made of brass and a percussion cap set into the base. The real significance of the cartridge was that for the first time the chamber could be fully sealed, by way of the propellant gases expanding the case against the chamber wall, with the result that effective weapon range and accuracy could be dramatically increased. His achievement was recognized when Parliament voted a special financial grant, and the Boxer cartridge is still in wide use today. Boxer was promoted Colonel in 1868 and retired the following year as an honorary Major-General.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS 1858.Bibliography1855, Treatise on Artillery. Prepared for the Use of the Practical Class, Royal Military Academy, London: Eyre \& Spottiswode.1858, Diagrams to Illustrate the Service and Management of Heavy Ordnance Referredto in Treatise on Artillery, London: Eyre \& Spottiswode.CMBiographical history of technology > Boxer, Major-General Edward Mourrier
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11 Shrapnel, General Henry
SUBJECT AREA: Weapons and armour[br]b. 3 June 1761 Bradford-on-Avon, Englandd. 13 March 1842 Southampton, England[br]English professional soldier and inventor of shrapnel ammunition.[br]The youngest of nine children, Shrapnel was commissioned into the Royal Artillery in July 1779. His early military service was in Newfoundland and it was on his return to England in 1784 that he began to interest himself in artillery ammunition. His particular concern was to develop a round that would be more effective against infantry than the existing solid cannon-ball and canister round. The result was a hollow, spherical shell filled with lead musket balls and fitted with a bursting charge and fuse. His development of the shell was interrupted by active service in the Low Countries in 1793–4, during which he was wounded, and duty in the West Indies. Nevertheless, in 1803 the British Army adopted his shell, which during the next twelve years played a significant part on the battlefield.In 1804 Shrapnel was appointed Assistant Inspector of Artillery and made further contributions to the science of gunnery, drawing up a series of range tables to improve accuracy of fire, inventing the brass tangent slide for better sighting of guns, and improving the production of howitzers and mortars by way of the invention of parabolic chambers. His services were recognized in 1814 by a Treasury grant of £1,200 per annum for life. He was promoted Major-General in 1819 and appointed a Colonel-Commandant of the Royal Artillery in 1827, and in the 1830s there was talk of him being made a baronet, but nothing came of it. Shrapnel remains a current military term, although modern bursting shells rely on the fragmentation of the casing of the projectile for their effect rather than his original concept of having shot inside them.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsColonel-Commandant of the Royal Artillery 1827.Further ReadingDictionary of National Biography, 1897, Vol. 52, London: Smith, Elder.CMBiographical history of technology > Shrapnel, General Henry
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12 RSG
2) Военный термин: Royal Scots Greys, reinforcement study group, resident study group, returned stores group3) Сокращение: Rear Support Command (NATO), Rear Support Group (NATO), rate support grant4) Университет: Revenue Support Grant5) Иммунология: rabbit serum globulin6) Деловая лексика: Retail System Group7) Расширение файла: EPOC Compiled Resource Header8) Чат: Rec Sport Golf9) NYSE. Republic Services, Inc. -
13 rsg
2) Военный термин: Royal Scots Greys, reinforcement study group, resident study group, returned stores group3) Сокращение: Rear Support Command (NATO), Rear Support Group (NATO), rate support grant4) Университет: Revenue Support Grant5) Иммунология: rabbit serum globulin6) Деловая лексика: Retail System Group7) Расширение файла: EPOC Compiled Resource Header8) Чат: Rec Sport Golf9) NYSE. Republic Services, Inc. -
14 RGA
1) Американизм: Rating Of Grant Applications, Republican Governor's Association2) Военный термин: Royal Garrison Archiver, Royal garrison artillery, residual gas analyzer3) Техника: rate gyro assembly4) Сокращение: Residual Gas Analyser5) Электроника: Residual Gas Analysis6) Гастроэнтерология: Russian Gastroenterological Association7) Онкология: РГА, Российская гастроэнтерологическая ассоциация8) Транспорт: Return Goods Authorization9) NYSE. Reinsurance Group of America, Inc.10) Аэропорты: Rio Grande, TF, Argentina -
15 Babbage, Charles
SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology[br]b. 26 December 1791 Walworth, Surrey, Englandd. 18 October 1871 London, England[br]English mathematician who invented the forerunner of the modern computer.[br]Charles Babbage was the son of a banker, Benjamin Babbage, and was a sickly child who had a rather haphazard education at private schools near Exeter and later at Enfield. Even as a child, he was inordinately fond of algebra, which he taught himself. He was conversant with several advanced mathematical texts, so by the time he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1811, he was ahead of his tutors. In his third year he moved to Peterhouse, whence he graduated in 1814, taking his MA in 1817. He first contributed to the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1815, and was elected a fellow of that body in 1816. He was one of the founders of the Astronomical Society in 1820 and served in high office in it.While he was still at Cambridge, in 1812, he had the first idea of calculating numerical tables by machinery. This was his first difference engine, which worked on the principle of repeatedly adding a common difference. He built a small model of an engine working on this principle between 1820 and 1822, and in July of the latter year he read an enthusiastically received note about it to the Astronomical Society. The following year he was awarded the Society's first gold medal. He submitted details of his invention to Sir Humphry Davy, President of the Royal Society; the Society reported favourably and the Government became interested, and following a meeting with the Chancellor of the Exchequer Babbage was awarded a grant of £1,500. Work proceeded and was carried on for four years under the direction of Joseph Clement.In 1827 Babbage went abroad for a year on medical advice. There he studied foreign workshops and factories, and in 1832 he published his observations in On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. While abroad, he received the news that he had been appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge University. He held the Chair until 1839, although he neither resided in College nor gave any lectures. For this he was paid between £80 and £90 a year! Differences arose between Babbage and Clement. Manufacture was moved from Clement's works in Lambeth, London, to new, fireproof buildings specially erected by the Government near Babbage's house in Dorset Square, London. Clement made a large claim for compensation and, when it was refused, withdrew his workers as well as all the special tools he had made up for the job. No work was possible for the next fifteen months, during which Babbage conceived the idea of his "analytical engine". He approached the Government with this, but it was not until eight years later, in 1842, that he received the reply that the expense was considered too great for further backing and that the Government was abandoning the project. This was in spite of the demonstration and perfectly satisfactory operation of a small section of the analytical engine at the International Exhibition of 1862. It is said that the demands made on manufacture in the production of his engines had an appreciable influence in improving the standard of machine tools, whilst similar benefits accrued from his development of a system of notation for the movements of machine elements. His opposition to street organ-grinders was a notable eccentricity; he estimated that a quarter of his mental effort was wasted by the effect of noise on his concentration.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS 1816. Astronomical Society Gold Medal 1823.BibliographyBabbage wrote eighty works, including: 1864, Passages from the Life of a Philosopher.July 1822, Letter to Sir Humphry Davy, PRS, on the Application of Machinery to the purpose of calculating and printing Mathematical Tables.Further Reading1961, Charles Babbage and His Calculating Engines: Selected Writings by Charles Babbage and Others, eds Philip and Emily Morrison, New York: Dover Publications.IMcN -
16 charter
1. сущ.1)а) общ. хартия, указ, грамотаб) эк., юр. хартия (документ, содержащий разрешение государства на создание корпорации, включая муниципальную корпорацию, университета и т. д., а также определяющий права и привилегии создаваемой организации)See:Royal Charter, Shoppers' Charter, corporation, municipality, university, charter of incorporation, Articles of Incorporationв) гос. упр., амер., ист. хартия (в колониальный период королевский документ, дававший право торговому дому на управление колонией и определявший структуру и способ управления)See:2) общ. уставUnited Nations Charter, Charter of the United Nations — устав Организации Объединенных Наций
See:3)а) общ. право, привилегия, льготаto take out a charter — получать право [привилегию\]
to grant a charter — предоставить право [привилегию\]
to revoke a charter — лишать права [привилегии\], отбирать права [привилегии\]
б) юр. хартия (документ, содержащий описание прав или привилегий определенной группы)4)а) трансп. чартер, чартер-партия (договор между владельцем транспортного средства и нанимателем (фрахтователем) об аренде всего транспортного средства или его части на определенный рейс или срок)See:bareboat charter, berth charter, open charter, time charter, voyage charter, charter broker, charter party, charterer, freightб) трансп. сдача на прокат, прокат (автомобиля, самолета)5) общ. групповой [чартерный\] туризм ( на зафрахтованном транспорте включая автобусы и самолеты)2. гл.This travel firm specializes in charter. — Это бюро путешествий специализируется на групповом туризме.
1)а) общ. даровать привилегии; предоставлять льготыб) юр. давать разрешение ( на создание учреждения)The legislature hesitated to charter the corporation. — Законодательное собрание не решилось дать разрешение на создание корпорации.
в) юр. давать право (на занятие какой-л. деятельностью)See:2)а) трансп. фрахтовать (нанимать для перевозки груза судно, самолет и т. д.)the vessel was chartered by (smb.) — судно было зафрахтовано (кем-л.)
See:б) трансп. сдавать в чартер (судно и т. д.)the vessel was chartered to (smb.) — судно было сдано в чартер (кому-л.)
3) эк. брать напрокат; нанимать, заказывать (автомобиль и т. п.)
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1) уставные документы корпорации: устав и сертификат об инкорпорации (лицензия), утверждаемые органами власти (в США - властями штата); см. articles of incorporation; 2) зафрахтовать судно.* * *. . Словарь экономических терминов .* * *свод положений и правил, определяющих устройство, деятельность, права и обязанности юридического лица, учредителей и зарегистрированный в установленном законом порядке-----Международные перевозки/Таможенное праводокумент, подтверждающий и удостоверяющий наличие и содержание договора фрахтования, заключаемого между судовладельцем и фрахтователем -
17 chartered company
Finin the United Kingdom, an organization formed by the grant of a royal charter. The charter authorizes the entity to operate and states the powers specifically granted. -
18 chartered entity
Finin the United Kingdom, an organization formed by the grant of a royal charter. The charter authorizes the entity to operate and states the powers specifically granted. -
19 Jacobi, Moritz Hermann von
SUBJECT AREA: Electricity[br]b. 21 September 1801 Potsdam, Germanyd. 27 February 1874 St Petersburg, Russia[br]German scientist who developed one of the first practical electric motors.[br]After studying architecture at Göttingen University, Jacobi turned his attention to physics and chemistry. In 1835 he was appointed a professor of civil engineering at the University of Dorpat (which later assumed the Estonian name of Tartu). Later, moving to St Petersburg, he became a member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences and commenced research on electricity and its practical applications. In December 1834 Jacobi presented a paper to the Academy of Sciences in Paris in which he stated that he had obtained rotation by electromagnetic methods in May of that year. Tsar Nicholas of Russia gave him a grant to prove that his electric motor had a practical application. Jacobi had a boat constructed that measured 28 ft in length and was propelled by paddles connected to an electric motor of his own design. Powered by Grove cells, it carried about fourteen passengers at a speed of almost 3 mph (5 km/h) on the River Neva. The weight of and possibly the fumes from the batteries contributed to the abandonment of the project. In 1839 Jacobi introduced electrotyping, i.e. the reproduction of forms by electrodeposition, which was one of the first commercial applications of electricity. In 1840 he reported the results of his investigations into the power of the electromagnet as a function of various parameters to the British Association.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsMember, Imperial Academy of Sciences, St Petersburg, 1847.BibliographyJacobi's papers are listed in Catalogue of Scientific Papers, 1868, Vol. III, London: Royal Society, pp. 517–18.1837, Annals of Electricity 1:408–15 and 419–44 (describes his motor).Further ReadingBiography, 1876, Bulletin de l'Académie imperiale des sciences de St Petersburg 21:262–79.E.H.Huntress, 1951, in Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 79: 22–3 (a short biography).B.Bowers, 1982, A History of Electric Light and Power, London.GWBiographical history of technology > Jacobi, Moritz Hermann von
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20 Leblanc, Nicolas
SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology[br]b. 6 December 1742 Ivey-le-Pré, Franced. 16 January 1806 Paris, France[br]French chemist, inventor of the Leblanc process for the manufacture of soda.[br]Orphaned at an early age, Leblanc was sent by his guardian, a doctor, to study medicine at the Ecole de Chirurgie in Paris. Around 1780 he entered the service of the Duke of Orléans as Surgeon. There he was able to pursue his interest in chemistry by carrying out research, particularly into crystallization; this bore fruit in a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences in 1786, published in 1812 as a separate work entitled Crystallotechnie. At that time there was much concern that supplies of natural soda were becoming insufficient to meet the increasing demands of various industries, textile above all. In 1775 the Academy offered a prize of 2,400 livres for a means of manufacturing soda from sea salt. Several chemists studied the problem, but the prize was never awarded. However, in 1789 Leblanc reported in the Journal de physique for 1789 that he had devised a process, and he applied to his patron for support. The Duke had the process subjected to tests, and when these proved favourable he, with Leblanc and the referee, formed a company in February 1790 to exploit it. A patent was granted in 1791 and, with the manufacture of a vital substance at low cost based on a raw material, salt in unlimited supply, a bright prospect seemed to open out for Leblanc. The salt was treated with sulphuric acid to form salt-cake (sodium sulphate), which was then rotated with coal and limestone to form a substance from which the soda was extracted with water followed by evaporation. Hydrochloric acid was a valuable by-product, from which could be made calcium chloride, widely used in the textile and paper industries. The factory worked until 1793, but did not achieve regular production, and then disaster struck: Leblanc's principal patron, the Duke of Orléans, perished under the guillotine in the reign of terror; the factory was sequestered by the Revolutionary government and the agreement was revoked. Leblanc laboured in vain to secure adequate compensation. Eventually a grant was made towards the cost of restoring the factory, but it was quite inadequate, and in despair, Leblanc shot himself. However, his process proved to be one of the greatest inventions in the chemical industry, and was taken up in other countries and remained the leading process for the production of soda for a century. In 1855 his family tried again to vindicate his name and achieve compensation, this time with success.[br]Further ReadingA.A.Leblanc, 1884, Nicolas Leblanc, sa vie, ses travaux et l'histoire de la soude artificielle, Paris (the standard biography, by his grandson).For more critical studies, see: C.C.Gillispie, 1957, "The discovery of the Leblanc process", Isis 48:152–70; J.G.Smith, 1970, "Studies in certain chemical industries in revolutionary and Napoleonic France", unpublished PhD thesis, Leeds University.LRD
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